民主的概念
在政治理論家之間一直有許多不同的可实施民主概念,這些概念差異也經常是爭論的話題。
其中一種理論是由约瑟夫·熊彼特在《資本主義、社會主義與民主》(Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy)一書裡所提出,他認為民主制度只不過是一種由人們定期選出政治領導進行統治的制度。依據這種概念,一般的公民沒有能力、也不應該進行「統治」,因為在大多數議題上這些平民都沒有明確的概念、而且也不夠聰明。
第二種理論是稱為民主的集合概念。宣稱政府所頒布的法案和政策應該接近於中間派選民的觀點—使其左派和右派都能得到一半的權利。這種理論是由安東尼·唐斯(Anthony Downs)在1957年所提出的。
第三種理論是以上提及的代議政制。而第四種理論則是被稱為審議民主(Deliberative democracy)的制度,主張公民應該直接的參與立法和決策過程,而不是透過他們的代表,直接民主制的支持者提出許多不同的理由來支持這種制度,政治活動本身便是具有價值的,它將能教育和社會化參與其中的公民,而群眾的參與能夠對掌權的精英進行監督。最重要的是,他們認為除非由公民直接參與立法和決策,否則這便算不上是公民自治的制度。
另一種理論則強調所有公民之間的政治平等。典型的現代民主制度是依賴於多數派的投票者能代表大多數民意的假設上,而非多數派能統治全部人口。這個理論也被用於主張參與政治的義務,例如將投票規定為公民的義務之一,或是限制富有階層的影響力—例如在選戰中的金融限制。
這些民主的理論都是圍繞於一個民主制度應該變成怎樣的問題上。另一種相當不同的理論則被稱為公共選擇理論(Public choice theory),主張民主所發揮的功能是讓創造它的團體和個人能在制度裡扮演其「角色」,這種理論認為佔據這些職位並運行這些功能的人都是出於其私利的。這種理論是由經濟學家所創造,有時候也被稱為經濟學的民主理論。公共選擇學派的阿羅不可能定理便指出由於排序制投票制度的先天缺陷,透過民主制度產生的集體決策不可能反應出完整的「集體偏好」。一些公共選擇學派的學者也因此認為應該以共和立憲制取代民主立憲制,才能更有效保障少數派的權利。
還有一種民主理論則是根基於多數決的基礎上,認為多數決最能符合功利的目的。這種理論認為如此一來大多數的人口都能滿足現行的政府統治。而缺點則是少數派將生活在多數派的統治下,這有時也被稱為多數人暴政或暴民政治。如果多數派沒有受到憲法和法律制度的限制,也可能會造成很大一部分的人口遭到邊緣化。
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Paul’s English oddities: systems of government
Given the political turmoil in Thailand, you might like to brush up on some English terms for different types of government. Some of them you will know already; some are quite obscure. This is not a complete list so, if the one you are looking for is not here, feel free to ask me!
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Part One: Ideas relevant to the political debate in Thailand at the moment.
Democracy: rule by the people, normally via elected representatives.
Absolute monarchy: direct rule by the monarch.
Constitutional monarchy: a system in which the monarch is the head of state but limited by a constitution, normally as part of a democracy.
Autocracy: rule by a single person.
Oligarchy: rule by a small but powerful group, who are often rich.
Plutocracy: rule by the rich.
Kleptocracy: rule by thieves (in other words, rule by a totally corrupt government).
Note: Plutocracy and kleptocracy are quite obscure words; most people don’t know them. But perhaps it’s time they got used more!
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Part Two: Some other systems.
Theocracy: rule by a god or gods (which in practice means rule by religious leaders).
Communism: a system of absolute equality, normally enforced by the state.
A republic: a country with no monarchy.
Anarchism: self-determination with no overall government. Note: The word ‘anarchy’ is also used to describe chaos, but the political idea of anarchy is not the same thing!
Capitalism: an economic system based on private ownership and the pursuit of personal or corporate profit.
Socialism: a political and economic system based on shared ownership and the pursuit of collective benefit.
Social Democracy: the gradual, gentle introduction of socialist values through democratic processes.
Eco-socialism: a form of socialism that links social issues to environmental issues.
Liberalism: belief in liberty and equality, with state intervention kept fairly minimal.
Libertarianism: belief that liberty is the most important thing and that the state should be kept to an absolute minimum.
Fascism: extreme authoritarianism and nationalism, often linked to a belief in racial superiority and generally imposed by violence.
Totalitarianism: complete subjugation of the people by the state. Communism and Fascism have historically tended to be totalitarian.
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Part Three: Right, Left and Centre!
Right-wing: a general belief in hierarchy and competition. Fascism is an extreme form of right-wing thought. Capitalism is also right-wing.
Left-wing: a general belief in equality and cooperation. Communism is an extreme form left-wing thought. Social Democracy is a non-extreme form.
Centrist: neither right-wing nor left-wing. Liberalism is an example of centrism.
Note: Some people find the right-left axis useful to describe politics; others find it too simplistic.
Interesting fact: The terms left-wing and right-wing were first used during the French Revolution, and originally referred to the seating arrangements of the French government.
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If there’s anything you don’t understand, please ask me!
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太精辟了!(转发自 I Can't Believe it)
#Economic Models Explained With #Cows
SOCIALISM; You have 2 cows. You give one to your neighbor.
COMMUNISM; You have 2 cows. The State takes both and gives you some milk.
FASCISM; You have 2 cows. The State takes both and sells you some milk.
NAZISM:You have 2 cows. The government takes both and shoots you.
BUREAUCRATISM; You have 2 cows. The State takes both, shoots one, milks the other and then throws the milk away.
TRADITIONAL CAPITALISM; You have two cows. You sell one and buy a bull. Your herd multiplies, and the economy grows. You sell them and retire on the income.
DEMOCRACY: You have 2 cows. Your neighbor has none. You vote people into office who tax your cows, forcing you to sell one to raise money to pay for the tax. The people you voted for then take the tax money and buy a cow and give it to your neighbor. You feel righteous.
AMERICAN CAPITALISM; You have two cows. You sell one, and force the other to produce the milk of four cows. Later, you hire a consultant to analyse why the cow has dropped dead.
FRENCH CAPITALISM; You have two cows. You go on strike, organize a riot, and block the roads, because you want three cows.
A GERMAN CAPITALISM; You have 2 cows. You re-engineer them so they live for 100 years, eat once a month and milk themselves.
A JAPANESE CAPITALISM; You have 2 cows. You redesign them so they are 1/10 the size of an ordinary cow, and produce the milk of 20 cows. You then create a clever cow cartoon image called cowkimon and market them worldwide.
ITALIAN CAPITALISM; You have two cows, but you don’t know where they are. You decide to have lunch.
SWISS CAPITALISM; You have 5,000 cows. None of them belong to you. You charge the owners for storing them.
CHINESE CAPITALISM; You have two cows. You have 300 people milking them. You claim that you have full employment and high bovine productivity. You arrest the newsman who reported the real situation.
RUSSIAN CAPITALISM; You have 2 cows. You count them and learn that you have 5 cows. You count them again and learn that you have 42 cows. You count them again and learn that you have 2 cows. You stop counting cows and open another bottle of Vodka.
INDIAN CAPITALISM; You have two cows. You worship them.
BRITISH CAPITALISM; You have two cows. Both are mad.
IRAQI CAPITALISM; Everyone thinks you have lots of cows. You tell them that you have none. Nobody believes you, so they bomb the crap out of you and invade your country. You still have no cows but at least you are now a Democracy.
AUSTRALIAN CAPITALISM; You have two cows. Business seems pretty good. You close the office and go for a few beers to celebrate.
NEW ZEALAND CAPITALISM; You have two cows. The one on the left looks very attractive.
GREEK CAPITALISM; You have two cows borrowed from French and German banks. You eat both of them. The banks call to collect their milk, but you cannot deliver so you call the IMF. The IMF loans you two cows. You eat both of them. The banks and the IMF call to collect their cows/milk. You are out getting a haircut.
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自创:
MALAYSIAN CAPITALISM: You have two cows. They are sent to a condominium in Singapore. You complain but no one sends the cows back to you. With your own handwork and persistence, you earn yourself another cow. You bring your cow out for an evening walk. Your only cow is robbed.
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